Subject :	Product Development
Top :	Product Development Process

Introduction

The purpose of this report is to act as a guide to anyone who has an idea but no formal design, business, manufacturing or environmental experience who nonetheless wishes to start their own company. It is recommended that such a person understand how a company’s business strategies should balance the customer’s expectations with internal functional requirements and business profitability and also how vital these are to the production process.

The need to develop new products and improve on the existing ones has always been a key factor in the manufacturing industry. Products normally have a limited life span; they are usually replaced with new ones or improved on in order to satisfy customers’ needs.

In developing new products there are sequential events which takes place from the conception of the idea through to the modelling of the prototype and the final stage of production. This is done with consideration of production cost, development speed, product performance, the development program expense and full understanding of the product market and existing competitors. This whole process is known as the PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS.

This report takes into consideration each stage of the product development process and their requirements. The first stage of the process involves examining the need for a product, proceeding to product design, whole life planning, issues of environmental concerns, manufacturing requirements and business strategies through to product deletion and recycling.

Product Development Process

The foundation of product development is the generation of new ideas. The first stage is coming up with ideas about what to produce, design, or sell. Subsequently, several critical questions follow, such as:- what are the various ways of implementing the ideas? And what are the necessary things to put in place to achieve the desired results? These are crucial questions and the answers are not always simple. Transforming ideas into reality is not always an easy task. There are various stages and processes to go through. All these phases combined are known as product development processes. The product development process commences with customer requirements, which are later transferred into functional requirements, which then become design parameters and finally process variables. (Module note of Process Development Process)

The product development process adopted in this paper is represented with the flow chart below;

Figure 1 : Flow chart of Product development process

The various stages of the product development processes are illustrated in the below figure.

Figure 2 : Product Development Process

PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

Prior to new product development important questions to address are: - who are the customers; what are their needs are and how to produce a product to satisfy those needs. This can be achieved using QFD.

Quality function deployment (QFD) is an investment in people and information. It uses a cross functional team to determine customer requirements. QFD is a systematic process for translating specific customer needs (voice of the customer) into appropriate technical requirements for each stage of the of product development and production stage. It entails marketing strategies, product design planning and engineering, prototype evaluation, production process development and product sales (Sullivan, 1986). According to Khoo and Ho (1996), QFD concept can be broken down into two main activities namely product quality deployment and deployment of quality function.

Product quality deployment involves using the ‘voice of the customer’ to determine the characteristics of the product, while deployment of quality function measures how the product manufacturer reacts to the ‘voice of the customer’. It is argued that the processes involved in QFD are time consuming and research work and survey analysis are quite expensive to conduct. It is however worthy to note that QFD is of great value to a manufacturing company, in that, it focuses on customers requirements, encourages teamwork, reduces redundancies and provides the framework for design analysis.

An example of QFD’s use was highlighted in a study carried out by Zaim & Sevkli (1996). A Turkish shampoo industry employed QFD methodology for translating customer needs and requirement into the quality characteristic to design a new shampoo. The company’s research and development team started out by conducting a market survey to identify a list of customers’ demands. This survey was carried out using literature research, pilot study, questionnaires and data from customers’ complaints. This information was eventually translated into technical and quality requirements for the production of the new shampoo so as to meet customers taste. The QFD used in the development of this product consist of six steps. These steps are illustrated by the flow diagram below:

Figure 3 : Steps in Quality Function Deployment

DEVELOPING THE MARKET INSIGHT

Customers select products based on price, ease of operation, aesthetics, reliability, quality, performance and after sales services. Therefore, it is important to carry out a literature/market survey before developing and designing a product in order to elicit customer response in an effort meet these needs. According to Turner, (1983) ‘Surveys have shown that about two thirds of all products considered to be technical success are commercial failures’. Although it can be argued that marketing research could be time consuming and expensive, it is however, necessary to involve consumers via this process, in order to provide suitable product specifications. As such, a lack of adequate marketing skills could result in industry product failure.

A case study of customers’ response to products in the United States and Great Britain, found that in both these countries, home-based producers have been slow to appreciate the importance of incorporating customers’ requirement in order to produce good designs. This has resulted in customers selecting an ever – increasing number of products from countries that give a higher priority to design (Hollins & Pugh, 1990). The involvement of the consumer is to enable many of the vague ideas developed in the design process to be turned into actual needs. It is necessary that a product under development work in harmony with the company’s corporate policies, which should no doubt focus on meeting the customers’ requirements. Hence, the company’s voice must be flexible so as to harmonise with the customers’.

A manufacturer must also relate the customers’ voice and requirement to its current production capacity. According to Baker and Heart (1999), it is necessary to match the varieties and results from customers’ responses, with the current production plant and plant acquisition in an effort to meet customer requirement. It would involve activities such as market analysis detailing potential market, production implications and how projects fit with corporate goals.

A typical case study is that of a research programme carried out at Brunnel University on The Engineering Design Concept of two United Kingdom companies, namely, HNE Mobility (Corby, Northants, and U.K) & Penny & Gile Davies Technology (Christchurch, U.K.) (Medhat, 1997) .These companies work within the mobility health care market, producing wheel chairs. The research involved the addition of electric motors to wheelchairs so as to provide motion, using battery as an energy source. The product development strategy used involved developing a market insight and ascertaining market needs through pilot study, questionnaires survey, and face-to-face interviews with consumers. This was used to form the basis for establishing the product specification, constraint and design.

DESIGN TECHNIQUES

Every product we see today was designed. Products are usually designed before manufactured; the design reflects what the product will look like. This is where imaginations are put into drawing which would entail all the necessary information that will later be used during the manufacturing process.

The engineering profession is concerned with the creation of devices or methods of harnessing resources of materials, knowledge and manpower in an effort to meet a particular need or want in a society. (Module note Product Development Process). Consideration must be given to the need of the users when designing, including special functional, material, and visual requirements. The objective of any design is not limited to creating a product that works and is durable but also a product that is attractive. True design is science and art and analysis and synthesis. It compromises the balance of conflicting requirements. It involves drawing on and improving upon previous knowledge to find solutions for new challenges, or as new solutions to previous issues. (Synthesis Engineering, 2007)

Engineering Design has been defined as the use of scientific principles, technical information and imagination in the definition of a mechanical structure, machine or system, to perform pre-specific functions with the maximum economy and efficiency (Module note on Product Development Process). Over the years engineering design has been transformed from the use of drawing board, pencils and set squares to the use of CAD (Computer Aided Design), CAE (Computer Aided Engineering), etc. The use of computer in designing products has contributed enormously to product design by making the design easier to understand. The introduction of the 3- dimensional drawing has made it easy to complete complex designs. When designing there should be assurance that the product is easy to understand and not vague and also easy to manufacture.

It is now a common practice, in the manufacturing industry, to involve the designers on the production floor so that it gives them a clear view of how to simplify their designs. A designer shouldn’t be designing a product that will be difficult to assemble or manufacture. According to Fielden Report “the designer’s responsibility covers the whole process from the conception to the issue of detailed instructions for production, and his interest continues throughout the designed life of the product”.

According to Synthesis Engineering the design phase has two main components (and often a third) which are:

• Conceptual Design (Macro level): This is where fundamental sweeping ideas are evaluated.
• Principal Design or Characterisation (Micro level): This is where the details are composed.
• Proof of Principal – This phase should be included to assure a safe product deployment.

Each phase is explained below.

Conceptual Design: Finding the best overall design always starts with considering various possibilities. The more complex the problem, the more concepts should be considered. Often this starts with a brainstorming session in which different ideas are measured. Having a reasonable list of requirements at this point is extremely valuable for assessment. During periods of brain storming ideas should be captured, evaluated, mutated, blended and reincarnated. The brighter the minds involved the better the ideas will be.

Comparing competitive product against the list of requirements can be done during the conceptual design phase it will show how the product stacks up against the competition. When evaluating ideas, several considerations should be set as indicated below;

• Determining the areas of technical stretch for each concept considered.
• Analyze concepts for adherence to aims and requirements.
• Asking - Is there any need to invent anything?
• Asking - Is there available technology to accomplish these tasks?
• Asking - What if the new technology doesn’t make it, is there any substitute technology?
• Cost and Time goals impact should be checked for each concept.

Generally, technical innovation is required to accomplish a task. These areas of technical stretch should be evaluated carefully to make sure that they can be contained within time and cost requirements.

Principal Design or Characterisation: The principal design or characterisation is where fundamental engineering is done. It is the core of the design because this is where computer is used for CAD (Computer Aided Design) and for design analysis. This phase of the design includes work in all areas of the project including those by individuals groups. The routine generally includes individual work as well as design review at appropriate intervals. The Design review meetings usually involve:

• Solving issues, especially the ones crossing between the design groups.
• Checking of progress with respect to timing.
• Design analysis for adherence to inputs or requirements.
• Reviewing of the design for manufacturing feasibility.

There are various techniques to be considered when designing and manufacturing a product. These techniques are directed towards achieving the highest quality at minimum costs. Examples of quality techniques which can be used for product development are; Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA), CAD and Quality Function Deployment (QFD).

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA): This is a tool used for analysing potential reliability problems early in development cycle, where it is possible and easier to make corrections and improve reliability through design. IT is used to identify potential failure modes and determine their effect on the operation of the product. Though it is not possible to anticipate every failure mode, the development group should try to come up with list of as many potential failure modes as possible.

Advantages of FMEA: FMEA has helped engineers to improve the quality and reliability of design. The proper use of FMEA provides several benefits to engineers, some of which are:

• Increases in customer satisfaction
• Improvement of product reliability and quality
• Capturing engineering and organisation knowledge
• Helps identify and eliminate potential product or process failure modes
• Provide focus for improved testing and development
• Minimize late changes and associate costs

Figure 4 : FMEA Form

Types of FMEA, detailed below are:

• System FMEA: the aim is to identify causes of failure at system level such as a lack of control of products and accidental broken parts.
• Design FMEA: the aim is to provide answers to a list of possible things that could go wrong with a product during the manufacturing operations and in service, due to design weaknesses.
• Process FMEA: the aim is to identify possible problems due to non-compliance to design specification.

FMEA’s relevance was highlighted when it was used in eradicating a troublesome oil leakage problem. This was accomplished through the introduction of a new flow control valve used in a fuel flow regulator unit of an aerospace application (Corbertt, J. et al, 1990). FMEA was produced based on functionally critical items and a multi-disciplinary team (including customers representation), which were used to identify potential sources of problems and necessary actions required as a result. This included the severity of the risk and how to reduce such risks. Finally, a unit was designed to eliminate the problem and to satisfy customer requirement.

It can be argued that the procedures of FMEA require much clerical work and bulky documents which could serve as a limitation to achieving success. However, it must be noted that for FMEA to be successful it requires the support of the management through implementation of quality policy and adequate training.

Design for Assembly (DFA): One of the key elements in concurrent engineering is Design For Assembly. Design For assembly is a simple, structure technique which gives design teams the information they need to reduce production cost. (Teamset, 2005)

With Design For Assembly product cost can be reduced in numerous ways by:

• A reduction in the number of parts to use
• Improving product assembly
• Simplifying parts handling
• Optimising manufacturing processes

Design for assembly (DFA) is an assembly cost reduction technique. The development of the original DFA method stemmed from earlier works in the 1960s on automatic handling, where a group of technology classification system was developed to catalogue automatic handling solutions for small parts. It became apparent that the classification system could also help designers to design parts that would be easy to handle automatically (Boothroyd, 1994). DFA enables new product designs to be produced at low costs and high quality, with increased reliability. It aims to reduce assembly cost by simplifying the product structure. DFA gives the best results when used by multi-disciplined New Product Introduction (NPI) teams since this ensures that various aspects of design are considered from various point of views. It may be argued that there is no need for DFA analysis in the product development process, since, assembly costs for a particular product forms only a small portion of the total manufacturing cost.

Design for assembly can be for manual or automated assembly. The major difference between methods is that, for automation, a more comprehensive parts feeding analysis is employed and a further stage of analysis is used for component gripping (Page, 2006/7). The design for manual assembly shall be considered for this paper, looking especially at the design of the ‘Door Pull Handle’.

Design for Manual Assembly

The process of manual assembly can be divided into two different areas:

• Handling : involves ease of acquiring, orientation and moving of parts
• Insertion and Fastening : involves mating a part to another for ease of insertion

An example of the use of DFA techniques was highlighted in a case study in 1988. A comparison between General Motors (GM) assembly plant in Fairfax, Kansas for its Grand Prix and Ford’s assembly plant for its Tairus and Mercury Stable models near Atlanta revealed a large productivity gap between the two companies. It was discovered that Ford car had fewer parts – 10 in its front bumper compared with 100 in the GM Pontiac. It was also discovered that Ford parts fit together more easily, and this helped Ford to save billions of dollars. This proved to be a major breakthrough achieved by Ford Motor Company. (Womak, et al, 1990).

PROTOTYPE

The method of transforming imaginary and the virtual realm into the physical world before production is known as Prototyping. Prototype enables an idea to be seen, touched and felt. It is used to demonstrate the aspects of any design. The type of materials used for prototype differs depending on the product that is being developed. Materials used for prototype should always be cost effective.

Prototype methods include clay mock up, fabrication and machine and rapid prototyping. The mock up method is usually used at the earliest stage of the design process for visualisation, it allows for necessary adjustment or fiddling with shape and size. Fabricated prototypes are typically functional versions that sometimes resemble the final product; it allows for test functions and proof that something works. Technology advancement has enable prototypes to be made in 3D physical type directly from the computer, this is known as Rapid Prototype, which is becoming very popular among designers due to its accuracy and speed. Rapid Prototype can make complex shapes, enabling the prototype to look like the real thing. Prototype is not necessary in all cases of product development.

During prototyping, input is sometimes requested from manufacturer because it helps with production quotation and assists in knowing cost of production, and how to make the product cheaper, faster and better.

Producing prototypes, models or moulds to create a new product has always been a barrier for manufacturers, this because of the associated cost; often high-cost artisans painstakingly and slowly handcraft new prototypes with expensive metal. (Feygin, 1999)

The different types of prototyping are:

• Fused Desposition Modelling (FDM)
• Sterolithography (SLA)
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• Laminated Object Manufacture (LOM)

The choice on the type of prototyping techniques depends on several factors such as ease of manufacturing, scrap reduction and reduction in the cost of fabrication. However, the prototyping technique to be considered for this product (i.e. door pull handle) is the Laminated Object Manufacture (LOM). This is because; it speeds up product development and reduces prototyping and manufacturing costs.

PRODUCTION

Before going into production a thorough study of the design should be done. Production is the last phase of the product development process, at this stage the product is ready to go on the market. Production usually varies depending on the product that is to be manufactured. Manufacturing has changed from the era of mass production to other forms, such as the Japanese style of manufacturing which is known as the Lean Manufacturing. The lean manufacturing is now commonly used because it helps to reduce waste and speed up production. There are also other forms of production methods such as the type used by Nissan, the Synchronous Production System, whereby the suppliers are located in Nissan’s factory and as production goes on in the factory, messages are sent to the suppliers to supply the required parts.

Various machines are also used to manufacture products, some products require lathe machine but these days lathe machines are hardly being used. Some also use Injection mould (this is usually used in the plastic making factories). Whichever product that is to be manufactured, the appropriate equipment should be made available. Hence, production is the most expensive phase of the product development process.

Materials used for production also differ, in most cases material to be used would have been tested; various test and analysis would have been carried out on them to check both the physical analysis and chemical properties. The final stage of production includes the following steps. The step listed below differs with each product and schedule:

• Final production quotes
• Design of special tools and fixtures where it is required
• Assembly validation
• Vendor selection and kick off
• Launch of production

The necessary information required should be available before starting the production some of which should be:

• Assembly Drawing
• Part detail drawing
• Assembly instructions (where applicable)
• Production specification ( packaging, purchased parts, raw materials etc)

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

ECO - DESIGN
Eco-design is a major part of product design. The design phase of a product is very crucial in determining the impact of the product on the environment. According to Boothroyd and Dewhurst (1994), the life cycle of a product starts with the initial design concept, and getting the design right at the beginning of the product’s life is critical to the eventual cost of the product.

It is very important to focus on eco-design at the product design stage. Only a cautious analysis will ensure that at the early stages proper materials are selected for the product. A life cycle assessment of a product is required during its design phase that will take into consideration usage and disposal. A research by Goodyear, (2006/7) revealed that a good design will ensure that, environmental legislation requirements are addressed, and that, a product functions approximately and effectively and communicates this function properly.

Life Cycle Assessment and Product Design
Life cycle assessment involves the assessment of the complete life cycle of a product, that is, extraction, processing, manufacturing, transportation, use, maintenance, reuse, recycling and disposal. There are different life cycle stages that should be considered in the development of a product. These are:

• Supply of Materials and Components
• Assembly and Manufacture
• Distribution
• Use
• End of Life

It is necessary to quantify the materials and processes involved during these stages of product development process. A typical analysis to be used for the design of Door Pull Handle is illustrated using table 2.0. This table is divided into Production, Use and Disposal of the product and are measured using Eco-indicator values and Eco-points. The eco-indicator is used to establish where to achieve the greatest environmental improvement during the design stage.

Figure 5 : LCA of Door Pull Handle. Source: Product Development Process Handout,
Coventry University 2006/07

An important aspect of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is the product End-of-Life, (EOL). The product EOL must be dealt with according to jurisdictional requirements, and this is becoming increasingly important, as seen in the implementation of directives such as the EU directive for automobile (EU,2000). The environmental impact can be lessened if an LCA is done early, preferably at the design stage. This is in effect, getting the environmental focus right in the product’s LCA. Getting the overall focus correct in Product design, keeping in mind, disassembly, recycle and re-manufacture, will be even more critical as products become more complex. (Hauschild, M, et al, 2004). An example of how companies have become concerned about their environmental image and the impact this will have on the sale of their brand, can be seen in the manufacture of Kodak’s single use camera. The camera consists of few types of material and plastic label for recycling. It could be recycled by re-grounding the plastic cases, and also the batteries can be reused. (Goodyear, 2006/7)

It can be argued that it is necessary to address the whole product life cycle, hence product development must rely on LCA as an analytical tool, and these must be applied to new processes and products, which are becoming increasingly more complex.

Packaging and Distribution
Environmental issues should also be considered for product packaging and distribution. The choice of materials used to pack products is just as vital to environment as are materials used to the manufacture the product.

• Packaging: Shrinkable polythene pack can be used as packing material for the door pull handle as opposed to card board. This is because, polythene performs better and it is produced using less water and energy.
• Distribution: Large vehicles capable of carrying a large quantity of product at once should be used since reduced vehicular movement helps to save the consumption and emission of fuel.

Products being developed should be environmental friendly and should not be harmful to the people that will be using them. Over the past few decades, there has been huge amount of ozone layer depletion and Global warming. These issues have now generated huge debate in the society. Thus, when developing a new product issues to take into consideration should surround questions like - what happens to the product after it has been used? Is it biodegradable? Can it be recycled?

While profit is the main goal of any business, it should not be achieved while putting our future in jeopardy. Pollution is a major problem in the world today, large companies, who are often chief violators of environmental laws are being fined for the pollution they cause. Customers are becoming more environmentally aware and as such want products that are environmentally friendly. Product developers have also been focusing much research on developing materials that are environmentally friendly. Billions of pounds is being spent annually on environmental research, as a result activities such as tree cutting has been prohibited in some places, also the focus of the automobile industry is now geared towards low carbon emission cars.

There is increasing demand to design sustainable products that can be recycled or reuse. Though not all products can be recycled, for those that can be, the environmental concerns should be a major focus.

CONCLUSION

The product development process is a long process which has to be done with real planning, as in some cases it takes years to finally launch the product being developed. It might not apply to all products, but rather, each process that was discussed should be considered. A product should never be developed without a full understanding of the market that it will be introduced to. Information should be accessed from appropriate and relevant sources. Having the right information could lead to a reduction in complexity, time and cost.

This paper has identified the key strategic processes involved in developing a new product, starting with a product definition; it provided a detailed look at developing a market strategy using a customer focus design tool. Quality function deployment was considered the most appropriate way to identify the needs of the customer.

It also highlighted that, for a company to be successful in the market, it must work towards reducing the cost of production, increase production capacity and ensure adequate quality of product. Therefore, detailed tradeoffs would be required by a designer or design team at the early stages of design using Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA) and Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA). To achieve the benefit of reduction in the cost of production, it was recognised that necessary features which encourage product and component packaging should be included in the design. Hence, DFMA tool was divided into two areas, namely, Design for Assembly (DFA) and Design for Manufacture (DFM). These techniques were used to design for parts reduction, ease of handling, scrap flow and general reduction in production process.

Environmental issues, life cycle assessment and end of a product’s life span were considered to be vital in the design of the product as highlighted in this paper. Hence, certain factors such as recycling, reuse of product, packaging and transportation of product were incorporated in product design.

There will always be the need to develop new products because customers always desire new products and existing ones will need improvement. It is important to emphasise that the market place is a major determinant for modification of a product. A product can be modified based on the response of the market, after it has been launched. Therefore, market research must be a continuous process, for a successful product development and launch and for continued product improvement in an effort to satisfy the needs of customers.

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